Herbarium
Herbarium (noun)
her-bar-i-um
Meaning:
A systematically arranged collection of dried plants.
Purpose:
The plants and it's data can used for scientific study of both past and present ecologies and landscapes.
What is a herbarium?
A herbarium is a collection of plant specimens, that are usually dried then pressed and used for research and study. They can also be used for education and wider artistic inspiration.
The first herbarium is believed to have been created in the early 16th-century by Italian physician Luca Ghini. He developed it to help his students study plants for their pharmaceutical properties throughout different seasons of the year, even in the winter when most plants die.
Today, there are over 3,500 herbaria worldwide, housing more than 400 million specimens. Durham’s herbarium, of around 7,000 specimens, plays a small but important role in advancing knowledge and scientific research.
Herbaria help to identify and classify plants, study biodiversity, track environmental changes and support medical research. They are also a record of plant life, they document a moment in time and can be used to compare modern and historical plants. Recent advances in DNA technology have allowed herbariums to remain relevant in today's rapidly evolving world, as they enable the study of genetics and plant evolution.
Durham's Herbarium contains specimens collected locally, regionally and internationally.
The collection includes specimens from an expedition to Greenland in the mid-1960s.
Many of these were gathered by T.T. Elkington, who translated the book The Flora of Greenland into English. He was also involved in the study of British flora, particularly the plant life of Upper Teesdale in County Durham.
Image: Specimen of an Salix arctica (Arctic willow), collected by T.T. Elkington in 1962 near King Oscars Fjord, a major fjord system in north east Greenland.
Image: Specimen of an Salix arctica (Arctic willow), collected by T.T. Elkington in 1962 near King Oscars Fjord, a major fjord system in north east Greenland.
We have a small collection of specimens from Svalbard, an habited island close to the North Pole. These specimens were collected in August 1960 by a collector who is currently identified only as 'D.A.O'.
The flora of Svalbard is diverse and offers valuable insight into its extreme climatic conditions, with only 10% of the archipelago supporting vegetation.
King's Bay in Ny-Ålesund, once a mining village, was abandoned after serious mining accident in 1962. Today, it is home to permanent research stations from 10 different countries, conducting studies in fields such as glaciology and oceanography.
Image: Photograph of specimens of Cardamine pratensis (Milkmaids) from King's Bay, Svalbard.
Image: Photograph of specimens of Cardamine pratensis (Milkmaids) from King's Bay, Svalbard.
From one corner of the world to the other, Durham's herbarium holds some specimens collected in Australia.
These specimens all come a town called Powelltown located in Melbourne, Victoria which has a settlement of around 200 people. The only specimen collected from here, known as the Tasmanian Myrtle, can only be found in Tasmania and southern Victoria.
Image: Specimen of a nothofagus cunninghamii (Tasmanian myrtle) collected by D.Aston in Powelltown in July 1954.
Image: Specimen of a nothofagus cunninghamii (Tasmanian myrtle) collected by D.Aston in Powelltown in July 1954.
Durham University's Botany and Zoology Departments had strong links to the University of Hong Kong.
During the 1960s and 1970s, an expedition was undertaken in Hong Kong, with a number of specimens collected by S.T. Chan.
What makes these specimens remarkable is the exceptional care and precision in their mounting, which sets them apart from many others in the collection.
Image: Mounted sample of a Aegiceras majus (Mangrove), collected by S.T.Chan on 25th January 1960 in 'Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong'. This area of Hong Kong is also known as Sha Tin 沙田.
Image: Mounted sample of a Aegiceras majus (Mangrove), collected by S.T.Chan on 25th January 1960 in 'Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong'. This area of Hong Kong is also known as Sha Tin 沙田.
Specimens come from across Europe, including Portugal, Slovakia and Switzerland.
Many of these specimens were collected in the 1950s and 1960s, this was the peak of the Botany Department's collecting. Archival research has shown that the department received annual donations to expand the herbarium and enhance its role as a teaching and reference collection.
Other countries represented in the herbarium includes Romania, Norway, Denmark, France, Germany and Spain.
Image: A sample of a Narcissus bulbocodium (hoop-petticoat daffoldil) collected by D.M.Moore on 9th April 1957 in Beira Litoral, Portugal.
Image: A sample of a Narcissus bulbocodium (hoop-petticoat daffoldil) collected by D.M.Moore on 9th April 1957 in Beira Litoral, Portugal.
Specimen of a Narcissus (daffodil), collected by D.R.Glendinning on the 23rd June 1955 in Neuchatel, Switzerland.
Specimen of a Narcissus (daffodil), collected by D.R.Glendinning on the 23rd June 1955 in Neuchatel, Switzerland.
Specimen of a Cerastium pumilum (European chickweed) collected by D.H. Valentine on the 26th October 1965.
Specimen of a Cerastium pumilum (European chickweed) collected by D.H. Valentine on the 26th October 1965.
Durham's Herbarium contains specimens collected locally, regionally and internationally.
The collection includes specimens from an expedition to Greenland in the mid-1960s.
Many of these were gathered by T.T. Elkington, who translated the book The Flora of Greenland into English. He was also involved in the study of British flora, particularly the plant life of Upper Teesdale in County Durham.
Image: Specimen of an Salix arctica (Arctic willow), collected by T.T. Elkington in 1962 near King Oscars Fjord, a major fjord system in north east Greenland.
Image: Specimen of an Salix arctica (Arctic willow), collected by T.T. Elkington in 1962 near King Oscars Fjord, a major fjord system in north east Greenland.
We have a small collection of specimens from Svalbard, an habited island close to the North Pole. These specimens were collected in August 1960 by a collector who is currently identified only as 'D.A.O'.
The flora of Svalbard is diverse and offers valuable insight into its extreme climatic conditions, with only 10% of the archipelago supporting vegetation.
King's Bay in Ny-Ålesund, once a mining village, was abandoned after serious mining accident in 1962. Today, it is home to permanent research stations from 10 different countries, conducting studies in fields such as glaciology and oceanography.
Image: Photograph of specimens of Cardamine pratensis (Milkmaids) from King's Bay, Svalbard.
Image: Photograph of specimens of Cardamine pratensis (Milkmaids) from King's Bay, Svalbard.
From one corner of the world to the other, Durham's herbarium holds some specimens collected in Australia.
These specimens all come a town called Powelltown located in Melbourne, Victoria which has a settlement of around 200 people. The only specimen collected from here, known as the Tasmanian Myrtle, can only be found in Tasmania and southern Victoria.
Image: Specimen of a nothofagus cunninghamii (Tasmanian myrtle) collected by D.Aston in Powelltown in July 1954.
Image: Specimen of a nothofagus cunninghamii (Tasmanian myrtle) collected by D.Aston in Powelltown in July 1954.
Durham University's Botany and Zoology Departments had strong links to the University of Hong Kong.
During the 1960s and 1970s, an expedition was undertaken in Hong Kong, with a number of specimens collected by S.T. Chan.
What makes these specimens remarkable is the exceptional care and precision in their mounting, which sets them apart from many others in the collection.
Image: Mounted sample of a Aegiceras majus (Mangrove), collected by S.T.Chan on 25th January 1960 in 'Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong'. This area of Hong Kong is also known as Sha Tin 沙田.
Image: Mounted sample of a Aegiceras majus (Mangrove), collected by S.T.Chan on 25th January 1960 in 'Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong'. This area of Hong Kong is also known as Sha Tin 沙田.
Specimens come from across Europe, including Portugal, Slovakia and Switzerland.
Many of these specimens were collected in the 1950s and 1960s, this was the peak of the Botany Department's collecting. Archival research has shown that the department received annual donations to expand the herbarium and enhance its role as a teaching and reference collection.
Other countries represented in the herbarium includes Romania, Norway, Denmark, France, Germany and Spain.
Image: A sample of a Narcissus bulbocodium (hoop-petticoat daffoldil) collected by D.M.Moore on 9th April 1957 in Beira Litoral, Portugal.
Image: A sample of a Narcissus bulbocodium (hoop-petticoat daffoldil) collected by D.M.Moore on 9th April 1957 in Beira Litoral, Portugal.
Specimen of a Narcissus (daffodil), collected by D.R.Glendinning on the 23rd June 1955 in Neuchatel, Switzerland.
Specimen of a Narcissus (daffodil), collected by D.R.Glendinning on the 23rd June 1955 in Neuchatel, Switzerland.
Specimen of a Cerastium pumilum (European chickweed) collected by D.H. Valentine on the 26th October 1965.
Specimen of a Cerastium pumilum (European chickweed) collected by D.H. Valentine on the 26th October 1965.
The Botany Department at Durham University focused heavily on British Flora.
In 1948, it was decided to create a new county flora for North East England. The department had relationships with herbaria across the country, trading knowledge and specimens alike.
Image: Two algae specimens Delesseria sanguinea (red marine seaweed) from St. Mary's Island on the Northumberland coastline.
Image: Two algae specimens Delesseria sanguinea (red marine seaweed) from St. Mary's Island on the Northumberland coastline.
Image: Specimens of a Polytrichum aloides (moss) from High Force Waterfall, which is located in the Upper Teesdale area of County Durham.
Image: Specimens of a Polytrichum aloides (moss) from High Force Waterfall, which is located in the Upper Teesdale area of County Durham.
The Welsh Grass Breeding Programme was a project established in 1919 with the aim of improving the country's quality of harvested crops post-WW1.
T.J.Jenkins spearheaded the project. He was an early pioneer of grass breeding and genetics. The results of the programme included the foundations of modern-day Rye grass. The programme continued under what is now the Institute of Biological, Environmental and Rural Sciences at Aberwysth University.
Image: Welsh Grass Breeding Programme hybrid specimens from the 1930s, both noted and signed as being bred by T.J.Jenkins.
Image: Welsh Grass Breeding Programme hybrid specimens from the 1930s, both noted and signed as being bred by T.J.Jenkins.
Historical specimens in Durham's Herbarium include plants collected in the 19th century.
An example of this are specimens collected by Charles Bailey, prominent botanist and microscopist in the mid- to late-19th century. He was a fellow of the Linneaen Society and his collected of botanical specimens totalled 300,000 at his time of death.
The Linnean Society of London is the world's oldest biological society. They are world-leaders in the study of natural history.
Durham's herbarium contains a specimen collected by Bailey in September 1883 from south west Lancashire.
Image: Specimen of a Najas graminea (ricefield water-nymph), collected by Bailey near the canals in Manchester.
Image: Specimen of a Najas graminea (ricefield water-nymph), collected by Bailey near the canals in Manchester.
Finally, there are specimens from a stones throw away...
To add to the knowledge of local ecology, specimens were collected around County Durham, even from the city centre.
Image: Specimen of an Elodea canadense (pondweed) collected by the banks of the River Wear by J.S. Redhead in 1960.
Image: Specimen of an Elodea canadense (pondweed) collected by the banks of the River Wear by J.S. Redhead in 1960.
Botanists
Botany is the scientific study of plants: those that collect plants are called botanists. Within the collection we have some significant botanists who studied and taught within the Botany Department at Durham University.
Kathleen M. Chalklin
K.M.Chalklin was a lecturer of algae in the Botany Department for thirty years. In 1957, she became acting head of the department and retired in 1963.
Chalklin is a significant contributor to the herbarium collection, adding an array of algae, ferns and gymnosperms (seed producing plants) to the collection.
She collected specimens regionally, including this specimen from Consolation Lakes in Banff, Canada.
David H. Valentine
David Henrique Valentine was appointed as Head of the Botany Department in 1945.
Valentine's research interests became well established in experimental taxonomy, especially of violets and the British primulas. He played a major role in the inception, development and subsequent successful conclusion of the Flora Europaea project.
The Flora Europaea project was a 5-volume encyclopedia of all national Floras of Europe published between 1964 -1993. This was to help researchers and readers identify any plant in Europe to the subspecies level.
As a result, his contribution to the herbarium includes a vast array of plants across globe, from Sweden to Andorra. Alongside colleagues and activists, he campaigned to mitigate the damaging effects of the creation of the Cow Green Reservoir.
Margaret E. Bradshaw (MBE)
The herbarium houses specimens collected by Margaret Bradshaw, a dedicated advocate for the declining native flora in Teesdale, County Durham.
Margaret initially joined the department as a PhD student in the 1950s, being awarded her PhD in 1959. Margaret was a well-established member of the department, and of many botany societies around the country. In 1951, Margaret identified a new species of Lady's-mantle, the Large-toothed Lady’s-mantle (Alchemilla subcrenata), in the Upper Teesdale.
In 2024, she was awarded an honorary doctorate in science at Durham University for her contribution to conservation work, teaching and promoting curiosity of our natural world.
The Upper Teesdale Special Flora Research and Conservation Trust was established by Margaret in 2017, as a result of the continued decline of several rare floras which were declining and a frustration over the lack of effective action for their conservation.
She published her first book, Teesdale's Special Flora: Places, Plants and People, in 2023 at the age of 96.
“This is our heritage, this unique assemblage of plant species, mine and yours … In spite of trying, I have failed to prevent its decline, now it is up to you.”
Bradshaw, M. (2023) Teesdale's Special Flora: Places, Plants and People. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Contemporary challenges
Herbaria help us to show the history of plant collecting and how our approach to helping the environment has evolved.
Upper Teesdale and Cow Green Reservoir
In 1967, the Cow Green area of Upper Teesdale was officially demolished to make way for a new dam and reservoir, becoming the sixth reservoir constructed in the area.
This move sparked protests and legal objections from botanists and environmental activists, including Margaret Bradshaw and David Bellamy, due to the region's national environmental significance. Upper Teesdale is home to rare alpine plants and unique Teesdale violets, and was known for plants that had colonised the Pennines after the Ice Age. They were unsuccessful in their legal challenges and the dam went ahead.
The new reservoir led to the destruction of about one-tenth of Upper Teesdale's flora. During the announcement ceremony, Sir Charles Allison, Chairman of the Tees Valley and Cleveland Water Board, controversially chose to set off a detonator to blast a crater, deviating from the customary small turf-cutting ceremony. Specimens from Cow Green were added to the herbarium as an important record of what was lost.
A leaflet from 1965 detailing the proposed plan of the reservoir and its potential threat to the flora of the Upper Teesdale (Durham University Archives and Special Collections).
A leaflet from 1965 detailing the proposed plan of the reservoir and its potential threat to the flora of the Upper Teesdale (Durham University Archives and Special Collections).
Photograph of Margaret Bradshaw in Upper Teesdale near Cow Green Reservoir highlighting a violet.
Photograph of Margaret Bradshaw in Upper Teesdale near Cow Green Reservoir highlighting a violet.
Dried herbarium specimen of a Lady's mantle, Alchemilla vesita, found by Margaret Bradshaw in 1955 in Leicester.
Dried herbarium specimen of a Lady's mantle, Alchemilla vesita, found by Margaret Bradshaw in 1955 in Leicester.
Dried herbarium specimen of a Large-toothed Lady's mantlr, alchemilla subcrenata, a new species found by Margaret Bradshaw. This specimen was collected by Margaret in 1952 in Weardale.
Dried herbarium specimen of a Large-toothed Lady's mantlr, alchemilla subcrenata, a new species found by Margaret Bradshaw. This specimen was collected by Margaret in 1952 in Weardale.
Close-up of a herbarium label on an Alchemilla vesita, Lady's mantle, highlighting the name, habitat, locality, detector, altitude and date of the specimen. This information is vital for research.
Close-up of a herbarium label on an Alchemilla vesita, Lady's mantle, highlighting the name, habitat, locality, detector, altitude and date of the specimen. This information is vital for research.
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